=== Nudging ===

Usually, the LES model PALM is used to simulate a certain part of the atmosphere which is the boundary layer. Processes occurring on larger scales than those in the boundary layer including large scale advection of scalars, large scale pressure gradients or large scale subsidence have also to be considered in the model, especially when focusing on realistic situations observed during measurement campaigns.\\

One possibility to account for tendencies in the LES model resulting from larger scales is the usage of nudging. Nudging is a relaxation technique which adjusts the large-eddy simulation to a given, larger scale flow situation. It can be used to simulate less idealized flow situations and to adjust the simulation to an observed state. In case that continuous measurement data over a longer time period (weeks to month to years) is available (for example from a meteorological super-site or intensive measurement campaigns), these periods can also be simulated with LES. The LES results could for example be used for the comparison with larger-scale models to test parameterizations. The simulation of longer time periods permits to calculate statistics and to identify situations in which the differences to the larger scale model are significant (Neggers et al., 2012).\\

Instead of taking nudging data from measurements it is also possible to use data from a larger scale model to drive PALM. Further information about nudging can be found in Neggers et al., 2012.\\

Beginning with revision r1241 it is possible to use [../../app/inipar#nudging nudging]. The nudging method in PALM which is based on implementations in the [https://www.gitorious.org/dales DALES] and [https://gitorious.org/uclales UCLA-LES] model consists principally of the following steps for the prognostic variables
{{{
#!Latex
\[ \phi \in \{u,v,\theta,q\} \] 
}}}
* Interpolation in time and height of large scale (LS) profiles 
{{{
#!Latex
\[ \phi_{\mathrm{LS}}  \]
}}} 
  provided by measurements or a larger scale model 
* Calculation of domain-averaged profiles  
{{{
#!Latex
\[ \left\langle\phi_{\mathrm{LES}}\right\rangle  \]
}}} 
  of the prognostic variables in the LES model
* Calculation of a tendency 
{{{
#!Latex
\[ \frac{\partial \phi_{\mathrm{LES}}}{\partial t}|_{\mathrm{NUDGE}}= -\frac{\phi_{\mathrm{LS}} - \left\langle\phi_{\mathrm{LES}}\right\rangle  }{\tau}  \]
}}} 
 at each single grid point where 
{{{
#!Latex
\[ \tau  \]
}}} 
 is the nudging time scale

The strength of the nudging strongly depends on the nudging time scale used. Usually, this time scale should be in the order of several hours. By varying the nudging time scale with height it is possible to apply the nudging not everywhere but for example only above the boundary layer. In case this is wanted, the time scale should be set to a very large number (~10^10^) inside the boundary layer. By this way, the nudging tendency will approach zero.

=== References ===

* '''Neggers, R. A. J., A. P. Siebesma and T. Heus, 2012:''' Continous single-column model evaluation at a permanent meteorological supersite. ''Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc'', '''29''', 91-115.